VSP-G1 Background information - Revision history

T.pfeiffer: /* Nanoparticle safety */

2017-07-05T15:34:11Z

Nanoparticle safety

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	=== Nanoparticle safety ===		=== Nanoparticle safety ===
	The VSP-G1 User manual has a section on [[VSP-G1_User_Manual#~~Safety_of_Nanoparticles~~\|working safely with nanoparticles.]] Several more comprehensive resources are accessible through the references:		The VSP-G1 User manual has a section on [[VSP-G1_User_Manual#Safety_of_nanoparticles\|working safely with nanoparticles.]] Several more comprehensive resources are accessible through the references:
	* ''Health significance of nanotechnologies'' published by Health Council of the Netherlands.<ref>[https://www.gezondheidsraad.nl/sites/default/files/Nanotechnologies_eng_0.pdf], Health Council of the Netherlands. ''Health significance of nanotechnologies''. The Hague: Health Council of the Netherlands, 2006; publication no. 2006/06E.</ref>		* ''Health significance of nanotechnologies'' published by Health Council of the Netherlands.<ref>[https://www.gezondheidsraad.nl/sites/default/files/Nanotechnologies_eng_0.pdf], Health Council of the Netherlands. ''Health significance of nanotechnologies''. The Hague: Health Council of the Netherlands, 2006; publication no. 2006/06E.</ref>
	* "Nanosafety Guidelines" published by Delft University of Technology. <ref>[http://www.vsnu.nl/files/documenten/CAO/2010-5021(b)_ACNU_GS_GP9_Nanosafety_guidelines.doc Available online], Hoeneveld, D. et al. ''Nanosafety Guidelines''. Delft University of Technology: NanoSafety workgroup of the Faculty of Applied Sciences, 2008.</ref>		* "Nanosafety Guidelines" published by Delft University of Technology. <ref>[http://www.vsnu.nl/files/documenten/CAO/2010-5021(b)_ACNU_GS_GP9_Nanosafety_guidelines.doc Available online], Hoeneveld, D. et al. ''Nanosafety Guidelines''. Delft University of Technology: NanoSafety workgroup of the Faculty of Applied Sciences, 2008.</ref>

T.pfeiffer: /* Nanoparticle safety */

2017-07-05T15:33:41Z

Nanoparticle safety

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	=== Nanoparticle safety ===		=== Nanoparticle safety ===
	~~See Safety~~ of ~~Nanoparticles~~		The VSP-G1 User manual has a section on [[VSP-G1_User_Manual#Safety_of_Nanoparticles\|working safely with nanoparticles.]] Several more comprehensive resources are accessible through the references:
	~~References to ECHA~~,		* ''Health significance of nanotechnologies'' published by Health Council of the Netherlands.<ref>[https://www.gezondheidsraad.nl/sites/default/files/Nanotechnologies_eng_0.pdf], Health Council of the Netherlands. ''Health significance of nanotechnologies''. The Hague: Health Council of the Netherlands, 2006; publication no. 2006/06E.</ref>
			* "Nanosafety Guidelines" published by Delft University of Technology. <ref>[http://www.vsnu.nl/files/documenten/CAO/2010-5021(b)_ACNU_GS_GP9_Nanosafety_guidelines.doc Available online], Hoeneveld, D. et al. ''Nanosafety Guidelines''. Delft University of Technology: NanoSafety workgroup of the Faculty of Applied Sciences, 2008.</ref>

	=== Lifecycle analysis ===		=== Lifecycle analysis ===

T.pfeiffer: /* References */

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References

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	<references />		<references />

	~~# [https://vsparticle.com/research/literature/ A compiled list of literature applicable to VSP-G1's technology and applications.]~~
	# Health Council of the Netherlands. ''Health significance of nanotechnologies''. The Hague: Health Council of the Netherlands, 2006; publication no. 2006/06E. [https://www.gezondheidsraad.nl/sites/default/files/Nanotechnologies_eng_0.pdf Available online].
	~~# Hinds, W.C. ''Aerosol Technology: Properties, Behaviour, and Measurements of Airborne Particles''. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982.~~
	# Hoeneveld, D. et al. ''Nanosafety Guidelines''. Delft University of Technology: NanoSafety workgroup of the Faculty of Applied Sciences, 2008. [http://www.vsnu.nl/files/documenten/CAO/2010-5021(b)_ACNU_GS_GP9_Nanosafety_guidelines.doc Available online].
	# Meuller, B. O. et al. ''Review of Spark Discharge Generators for Production of Nanoparticle Aerosols''. Aerosol Science and Technology, 2012. [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02786826.2012.705448 doi: 10.1080/02786826.2012.705448.]
	~~# Tabrizi, N.S. et al. ''Generation of nanoparticles by spark discharge''. J. Nanopart. Res., 2009; 11:315-332.~~

T.pfeiffer: /* Lifecycle analysis */

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Lifecycle analysis

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	== Lifecycle analysis ==		== Nanoparticles, Safety, Health, and the Environment ==
			The interest in nanoparticles is due to the many potential properties they are expected to have. The flip-side of this, is that in addition to many new and exciting beneficial properties, negative properties can also be found. As an example, certain carbon nanotubes are suspected as having similar properties as asbestos. Currently, there is no unified way of guaranteeing that a particle that was not explicitly tested is hazardous, or not. Hence, VSParticle recommends following the precautionary principle, which consists of two steps. First, decide whether the perceived benefits merit the risk. For many nanoparticle applications, this tends to be the case. Second, prevent and limit exposure sufficiently to compensate for the unknowns of the hazard side of the equation. This comes back in two aspects for working with nanomaterials: Nanoparticle safety and Lifecycle analysis.

	The waste of the spark generator consists of the carrier gas plus any nanoparticles not deposited on the substrate but picked up when cleaning the reactor surfaces and the pre- and end-filters. These materials should be pooled, preferably separated by the elements in the waste, in order to recycle the metals. The carrier gases are typically inert Ar and N<sub>2</sub>, which can be vented (e.g. through a fumehood). If other carrier gases are used (toxic, greenhouse, etc), capture or post-treatment should be used to conform to general industry or laboratory standards on gas use.
			=== Nanoparticle safety ===
			See Safety of Nanoparticles
			References to ECHA,

			=== Lifecycle analysis ===
			Lifecycle analysis

			The waste of the spark generator consists of the carrier gas plus any nanoparticles not deposited on the substrate but picked up when cleaning the reactor surfaces and the pre- and end-filters. These materials should be pooled, preferably separated by the elements in the waste, in order to recycle the metals. The carrier gases are typically inert Ar and N<sub>2</sub>, which can be vented (e.g. through a fumehood). If other carrier gases are used (toxic, greenhouse, etc), capture or post-treatment should be used to conform to general industry or laboratory standards on gas use. When VSParticle systems are end-of-life, they should not be disposed of in regular waste streams. See [[VSP-G1_User_Manual#Retiring_the_G1\|Retiring the G1]].

	Life cycle analysis for the end product should be evaluated by the operators on a case-by-case basis.		Life cycle analysis for the end product should be evaluated by the operators on a case-by-case basis.

	== Theoretical background ==		== Theoretical background ==
	===Overview of nanoparticle research===		===Overview of nanoparticle research===

T.pfeiffer: /* Overview of gas phase nanoparticle production */

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Overview of gas phase nanoparticle production

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	Nanoparticles come in different forms, from dendrimers and composites to carbon-based and metal-based materials, and can be stored in different media, from films to colloids and aerosols. There are different methods based on the form of nanoparticles desired. Depending on the desired end product or process, each method has their own set of advantages and disadvantages.		Nanoparticles come in different forms, from dendrimers and composites to carbon-based and metal-based materials, and can be stored in different media, from films to colloids and aerosols. There are different methods based on the form of nanoparticles desired. Depending on the desired end product or process, each method has their own set of advantages and disadvantages.

	Meuller and his colleagues<ref name="Meuller">Meuller et al., 2012 ''Review of Spark Discharge Generators for Production of Nanoparticle Aerosols'', Aerosol Science and Technology '''46''', p. 1256-1270. doi: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2012.705448 10.1080/02786826.2012.705448]</ref> summarized the methods of gas phase production of nanoparticles in their review of spark discharge generators (2012), which included flame spray pyrolysis, spray ~~protolysis~~, electrospray, evaporation/condensation of material and aerosol generation by spark discharge. All methods except for electrospray produce high purity nanoparticles with narrow size distribution at a high production rate. The well-proven electrospray method, which deposits the colloidal particles in a controlled homogeneous manner that minimizes residues where still present, has been in use for a longer time compared to other methods with readily available materials on the market. Both spray pyrolysis and spark discharge methods are simple and fast. The evaporation/condensation method offers detailed control over deposition parameters, but requires lengthy heating of large ovens.		Meuller and his colleagues<ref name="Meuller">Meuller et al., 2012 ''Review of Spark Discharge Generators for Production of Nanoparticle Aerosols'', Aerosol Science and Technology '''46''', p. 1256-1270. doi: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2012.705448 10.1080/02786826.2012.705448]</ref> summarized the methods of gas phase production of nanoparticles in their review of spark discharge generators (2012), which included flame spray pyrolysis, spray pyrolysis, electrospray, evaporation/condensation of material and aerosol generation by spark discharge. All methods except for electrospray produce high purity nanoparticles with narrow size distribution at a high production rate. The well-proven electrospray method, which deposits the colloidal particles in a controlled homogeneous manner that minimizes residues where still present, has been in use for a longer time compared to other methods with readily available materials on the market. Both spray pyrolysis and spark discharge methods are simple and fast. The evaporation/condensation method offers detailed control over deposition parameters, but requires lengthy heating of large ovens.

	The spark discharge method can easily be scaled up, using more sparks per time or multiple sparks in parallel. The flame spray pyrolysis technique also scales well, and is particularly useful when making oxides. In the case of the evaporation/condensation of materials, the time and energy consumption required limit the overall operation time of the generation system. The spray pyroysis and electrospray methods require the use of solvents and solutes, as well as (often expensive) precursors, all potential contaminants in the process.		The spark discharge method can easily be scaled up, using more sparks per time or multiple sparks in parallel. The flame spray pyrolysis technique also scales well, and is particularly useful when making oxides. In the case of the evaporation/condensation of materials, the time and energy consumption required limit the overall operation time of the generation system. The spray pyroysis and electrospray methods require the use of solvents and solutes, as well as (often expensive) precursors, all potential contaminants in the process.
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	\|Flame spray pyrolysis \|\|High purity nanoparticles and narrow size distribution at a high production rate. Requires higher amounts of energy and precursors in most cases need to have physical properties that are not too dissimilar.<br> Postprocessing is most often required for the production of non-oxide nanoparticles.		\|Flame spray pyrolysis \|\|High purity nanoparticles and narrow size distribution at a high production rate. Requires higher amounts of energy and precursors in most cases need to have physical properties that are not too dissimilar.<br> Postprocessing is most often required for the production of non-oxide nanoparticles.
	\|-		\|-
	\|Spray ~~protolysis~~ \|\|A simple and fast process for the production of high purity nanoparticles and narrow size distribution at a high production rate. <br>Precursors and solutes are necessary, which potentially contaminate the process.		\|Spray pyrolysis \|\|A simple and fast process for the production of high purity nanoparticles and narrow size distribution at a high production rate. <br>Precursors and solutes are necessary, which potentially contaminate the process.
	\|-		\|-
	\|\|Electrospray \|\|Deposition of colloidal particles in a controlled homogeneous manner that minimizes residues where still present. <br>Precursors and solutes are necessary, which potentially contaminate the process.		\|\|Electrospray \|\|Deposition of colloidal particles in a controlled homogeneous manner that minimizes residues where still present. <br>Precursors and solutes are necessary, which potentially contaminate the process.

T.pfeiffer: /* Overview of gas phase nanoparticle production */

2017-07-05T13:04:17Z

Overview of gas phase nanoparticle production

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	===Overview of gas phase nanoparticle production===		===Overview of gas phase nanoparticle production===
	Nanoparticles come in different forms, from dendrimers and composites to carbon-based and metal-based materials, and can be stored in different media, from films to colloids and aerosols. There are different methods based on the form of nanoparticles desired. Meuller and his colleagues<ref name="Meuller">Meuller et al., 2012 ''Review of Spark Discharge Generators for Production of Nanoparticle Aerosols'', Aerosol Science and Technology '''46''', p. 1256-1270. doi: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2012.705448 10.1080/02786826.2012.705448]</ref> summarized the methods of gas phase production of nanoparticles in their review of spark discharge generators (2012), which included flame spray pyrolysis, spray protolysis, electrospray, evaporation/condensation of material and aerosol generation by spark discharge. All methods except for electrospray produce high purity nanoparticles with narrow size distribution at a high production rate. The well-proven electrospray method, which deposits the colloidal particles in a controlled homogeneous manner that minimizes residues where still present, has been in use for a longer time compared to other methods with readily available materials on the market. Both spray ~~protolysis~~ and spark discharge methods are simple and fast. The evaporation/condensation method offers detailed control over deposition parameters. The spark discharge method can easily be scaled up, using more sparks per time or multiple sparks in parallel. The flame spray pyrolysis, ~~evaporation/condensation of material~~ and ~~spark discharge methods all require higher amounts of energy~~. In the case of the evaporation/condensation of materials, the time and energy consumption required limit the overall operation time of the generation system. The spray ~~protolysis~~ and electrospray methods require the use of ~~precursors~~ and solutes, ~~potentially contaminating the process. Flame spray pyrolysis requires postprocessing for the production of non-oxide nanoparticles. Depending on~~ the ~~desired end product or~~ process~~, each method has their own set of advantages and disadvantages~~.		Nanoparticles come in different forms, from dendrimers and composites to carbon-based and metal-based materials, and can be stored in different media, from films to colloids and aerosols. There are different methods based on the form of nanoparticles desired. Depending on the desired end product or process, each method has their own set of advantages and disadvantages.

			Meuller and his colleagues<ref name="Meuller">Meuller et al., 2012 ''Review of Spark Discharge Generators for Production of Nanoparticle Aerosols'', Aerosol Science and Technology '''46''', p. 1256-1270. doi: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2012.705448 10.1080/02786826.2012.705448]</ref> summarized the methods of gas phase production of nanoparticles in their review of spark discharge generators (2012), which included flame spray pyrolysis, spray protolysis, electrospray, evaporation/condensation of material and aerosol generation by spark discharge. All methods except for electrospray produce high purity nanoparticles with narrow size distribution at a high production rate. The well-proven electrospray method, which deposits the colloidal particles in a controlled homogeneous manner that minimizes residues where still present, has been in use for a longer time compared to other methods with readily available materials on the market. Both spray pyrolysis and spark discharge methods are simple and fast. The evaporation/condensation method offers detailed control over deposition parameters, but requires lengthy heating of large ovens.

			The spark discharge method can easily be scaled up, using more sparks per time or multiple sparks in parallel. The flame spray pyrolysis technique also scales well, and is particularly useful when making oxides. In the case of the evaporation/condensation of materials, the time and energy consumption required limit the overall operation time of the generation system. The spray pyroysis and electrospray methods require the use of solvents and solutes, as well as (often expensive) precursors, all potential contaminants in the process.

	{\|class="table table-striped table-bordered"		{\|class="table table-striped table-bordered"

T.pfeiffer: /* History of the spark discharge technology */

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History of the spark discharge technology

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	==== History of the spark discharge technology ====		==== History of the spark discharge technology ====
	~~<span style="background:#FFFF00">(how does our machine improve~~ on the ~~original design?)</span><br>~~		The first publications on the production of nanoparticle aerosols by spark discharge stem from the early 1980's, following the pioneering work of Andreas Schmidt-Ott and his group. Palas commercialized a spark generator in 1993, which still is in use as a source for 'artificial soot', e.g. in filter testing. VSParticle developed the VSP-G1 in response to demands from the materials science community for a more versatile, clean spark generator, based on the systems developed in Andreas Schmidt-Ott's group at TU Delft.

	'~~'(ask TC how to mirror~~ the ~~Technology page~~ of ~~VSP website)~~''
	~~[https://vsparticle~~.~~com/technology/ The technology behind~~ VSP-G1~~]<br>~~

	==== The spark discharge process ====		==== The spark discharge process ====

T.pfeiffer: /* The spark discharge process */

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The spark discharge process

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	The spark discharge generator is composed of two primary components - the chamber that houses the electrodes and the electronic circuit required to control the spark generation. During the spark ablation process, material is ablated ('evaporated') from the electrode tips (typically a metal) into a flow of gas. The metal vapor condenses in the gas flows, forming a nanoparticle aerosol.		The spark discharge generator is composed of two primary components - the chamber that houses the electrodes and the electronic circuit required to control the spark generation. During the spark ablation process, material is ablated ('evaporated') from the electrode tips (typically a metal) into a flow of gas. The metal vapor condenses in the gas flows, forming a nanoparticle aerosol.

	[[File:Technology.png\|thumb\|As the particles from the evaporated electrode material are carried further away from the plasma channel, they coalesce into larger particles.]] The electrodes are mounted with a gap in between them. When a high enough potential (voltage) is placed over the gap, the high electric field can cause a spark to form. The spark is a short lasting event, where an electron avalanche results in the formation of a conductive plasma channel between the two electrodes. During the spark, a lot of energy is directed into the electrode tips in a short time, causing the ablation ('evaporation') of the electrode tip surface. As the vapor forms, the resulting material stabilizes itself due to adiabatic expansion, radiation, and thermal conduction below the evaporation temperature <ref>Tabrizi et al., 2009, Journal of Nanoparticle Research '''11''', p315-332. doi: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11051-008-9407-y 10.1007/s11051-008-9407-y]</ref>. As the gas carries the vapor away from the spark gap, the vapor condenses and forms very small particles. Eventually, the particles coagulate and coalesce into larger forms.		[[File:Technology.png\|thumb\|As the particles from the evaporated electrode material are carried further away from the plasma channel, they coalesce into larger particles.]] The electrodes are mounted with a gap in between them. When a high enough potential (voltage) is placed over the gap, the high electric field can cause a spark to form. The spark is a short lasting event, where an electron avalanche results in the formation of a conductive plasma channel between the two electrodes. During the spark, a lot of energy is directed into the electrode tips in a short time, causing the ablation ('evaporation') of the electrode tip surface. As the vapor forms, the resulting material stabilizes itself due to adiabatic expansion, radiation, and thermal conduction below the evaporation temperature <ref>Tabrizi et al., 2009, Journal of Nanoparticle Research '''11''', p315-332. doi: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11051-008-9407-y 10.1007/s11051-008-9407-y]</ref>. As the gas carries the vapor away from the spark gap, the vapor condenses and forms very small particles. Eventually, the particles coagulate and coalesce into larger forms.

	In many applications in which the material properties of the nanoparticles are of primary interest, the particles by themselves are not enough.The nanoparticles form part of a larger system, and are e.g. attached to a support material, or embedded in a layer, and this overall system is what needs to be taken into account for the application. In spark ablation, the produced nanoparticles are carried in a flow of gas. This aerosol cannot be stored, but is instead made on demand~~. stored in a~~ substrate ~~<span style="background:#FFFF00">(such as? paper? etc)</span>~~ designed to the research needs of the scientists. For industrial applications~~, however~~, maintaining the material properties of the nanoparticles usually requires their deposition directly where they are needed within the production process. An example of this would be ~~creating~~ a ~~product that is self-powering by creating~~ nanoparticles ~~with~~ photovoltaic ~~properties and spraying them onto the surface of the product as the particles are produced~~.
			In many applications in which the material properties of the nanoparticles are of primary interest, the particles by themselves are not enough.The nanoparticles form part of a larger system, and are e.g. attached to a support material, or embedded in a layer, and this overall system is what needs to be taken into account for the application. In spark ablation, the produced nanoparticles are carried in a flow of gas. This aerosol cannot be stored, but is instead made on demand and deposited directly onto the desired substrate designed to the research needs of the scientists. Typical substrates vary from flat (glass, silicon, polymers and metals) to porous structures and powders. For industrial applications, maintaining the material properties of the nanoparticles usually requires their deposition directly where they are needed within the production process, e.g. to prevent oxidation between processing steps. An example of this would be depositing a layer of nanoparticles between two layers of a photovoltaic cell.

	==== Research using spark discharge technology ====		==== Research using spark discharge technology ====

T.pfeiffer: /* The spark discharge process */

2017-07-05T12:44:05Z

The spark discharge process

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	==== The spark discharge process ====		==== The spark discharge process ====
	The spark discharge generator is composed of two primary components - the chamber that houses the electrodes and the ~~electric~~ circuit required to control the spark generation. ~~<ref name="Meuller" />~~		The spark discharge generator is composed of two primary components - the chamber that houses the electrodes and the electronic circuit required to control the spark generation. During the spark ablation process, material is ablated ('evaporated') from the electrode tips (typically a metal) into a flow of gas. The metal vapor condenses in the gas flows, forming a nanoparticle aerosol.
	~~<span style="background:#FFFF00">ASK TOBIAS FOR CLARIFICATION ON THE PROCESS AND CLEAN THIS UP</span>~~

	[[File:Technology.png\|thumb\|As the particles from the evaporated electrode material are carried further away from the plasma channel, they coalesce into larger particles.]] ~~<span style="background:#FFFF00">need to edit the graphic to include labels for the different sizes of the coalesced particles</span>~~ The electrodes are mounted with a gap in between them. ~~A certain amount of electricity~~ (voltage) is ~~required to create a~~ high electric field ~~that accelerate the electrons and cations (on the surface of one electrode?), causing electrons~~ to ~~be knocked out and creating~~ a ~~chain reaction that~~ results in the formation of a plasma channel ~~that is able to conduct the electricity~~ between the two electrodes. ~~The resulting sparks cross~~ the ~~gap from one~~ electrode ~~to another~~, ~~evaporating~~ the ~~electrodes into a vapor~~ of ~~gaseous~~ electrode ~~material~~. As the vapor forms, the resulting material ~~stabilises~~ itself due to adiabatic expansion ~~(Hinds, 1982; Tabrizi et al., 2009)~~, radiation, and thermal conduction below the evaporation temperature (Tabrizi et al., 2009~~). In the tight space around the plasma channel~~, ~~the particles coalesce into larger forms. However, as the temperature~~ of ~~the particles cools~~, ~~their size becomes more stable~~. ~~This is where~~ the ~~use of the carrier~~ gas ~~becomes important. The role of~~ the ~~carrier gas is not only to cool~~ the ~~particles (and thus controlling their size)~~, the ~~gas also keeps the reactor chamber cool~~ and ~~moves the~~ particles ~~away from the plasma channel~~. ~~The quantum properties of the new particles can cause them to react with the carrier gas~~, ~~which means the type of carrier gas used is also relevant. Using an inert gas helps maintain a stable atmosphere for~~ the particles ~~during formation~~ and ~~in "storage"~~.		[[File:Technology.png\|thumb\|As the particles from the evaporated electrode material are carried further away from the plasma channel, they coalesce into larger particles.]] The electrodes are mounted with a gap in between them. When a high enough potential (voltage) is placed over the gap, the high electric field can cause a spark to form. The spark is a short lasting event, where an electron avalanche results in the formation of a conductive plasma channel between the two electrodes. During the spark, a lot of energy is directed into the electrode tips in a short time, causing the ablation ('evaporation') of the electrode tip surface. As the vapor forms, the resulting material stabilizes itself due to adiabatic expansion, radiation, and thermal conduction below the evaporation temperature <ref>Tabrizi et al., 2009, Journal of Nanoparticle Research '''11''', p315-332. doi: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11051-008-9407-y 10.1007/s11051-008-9407-y]</ref>. As the gas carries the vapor away from the spark gap, the vapor condenses and forms very small particles. Eventually, the particles coagulate and coalesce into larger forms.

	In ~~research~~ applications in which the material properties of the nanoparticles are of primary interest, the produced nanoparticles are stored in a substrate <span style="background:#FFFF00">(such as? paper? etc)</span> designed to the research needs of the scientists. For industrial applications, however, maintaining the material properties of the nanoparticles usually requires their deposition directly where they are needed within the production process. An example of this would be creating a product that is self-powering by creating nanoparticles with photovoltaic properties and spraying them onto the surface of the product as the particles are produced.		In many applications in which the material properties of the nanoparticles are of primary interest, the particles by themselves are not enough.The nanoparticles form part of a larger system, and are e.g. attached to a support material, or embedded in a layer, and this overall system is what needs to be taken into account for the application. In spark ablation, the produced nanoparticles are carried in a flow of gas. This aerosol cannot be stored, but is instead made on demand. stored in a substrate <span style="background:#FFFF00">(such as? paper? etc)</span> designed to the research needs of the scientists. For industrial applications, however, maintaining the material properties of the nanoparticles usually requires their deposition directly where they are needed within the production process. An example of this would be creating a product that is self-powering by creating nanoparticles with photovoltaic properties and spraying them onto the surface of the product as the particles are produced.

	==== Research using spark discharge technology ====		==== Research using spark discharge technology ====

T.pfeiffer: /* Research using spark discharge technology */

2017-07-05T12:23:27Z

Research using spark discharge technology

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	==== Research using spark discharge technology ====		==== Research using spark discharge technology ====
	The VSParticle website maintains a [https://www.vsparticle.com/research/literature list of selected scientific literature] on nanoparticle production with spark ablation.		The VSParticle website maintains a [https://www.vsparticle.com/research/literature list of selected scientific literature]<ref>[https://www.vsparticle.com/research/literature] List of selected scientific literature.</ref> on nanoparticle production with spark ablation.

	~~Applications~~ of spark ~~discharge technology~~ in various ~~fields. Give examples~~, ~~do not be exhaustive~~.		Roughly speaking there are three types of papers. First, papers related to operation of the spark generators themselves, which are summarized by the review papers in the literature list. Second, papers related to the synthesis of specific materials, such as different elements, oxygen sensitive materials, bi-metallic nanoparticles and nanoparticle structures. Third, there are papers describing the use of spark ablation in various applications, such as batteries, hydrogen storage, and gas sensing.

	== References ==		== References ==